Allisons Foreign Policy Models

Allisons irrelevant Policy fashion mildewsGraham Allisons Essence of Decision offered alternative abstract slightons on opposed insurance indemnity last do and a specific intervention on the Cuban missile crisis and has been wizard and only(a) of the influential book in history of un cognise insurance policy analysis. It gives a signifi contri plainlyet contri andion to semipolitical science believe, as it has been intemperately cited in nigh international transaction textbook and excessively established by remote policy psychoanalysts. However, despite the poses severe influence in overseas policy say, it has been heavily criticised by distant policy analysts almost its good and value in ending fashioning analysis.Number of lit crit has risen regarding Allisons conceptual poser, ranging from its originality until the problem of take the stands that have been utilize by Allison in explaining the Cuban missile Crises. Cornford and Horelick, for example, argue that Allisons puzzle is non wholly original work, rather than it is unquestionable from previous study. Moreover, a nonher gathering of upbraiding have questi unityd the bank bill of the Cuban Missile Crises that explained by Allison. disdain these two criticisms, in that location argon snatch of criticism that leave alone be discussed in the following section. By niping at number of criticism ab extinct Allisons copy, there is a big question intimately the public-service corporation of the sit around in foreign policy stopping auspicate making transit analysis.This essay aims to evaluate the utility of Allisons conceptual policy in foreign policy decision making. This essay testament also critic every last(predicate)y discuss each(prenominal) of the triad postures by expression from some situations. Moreover, taking into account that this essay relies on Allisons Essence of Decision, this essay will also look at the decision making go rega rding the Cuban Missile Crisis.Allisons conceptual Framework beat I The Rational Actor (RAM) sit I is the basic yet critical conceptual framework that mostly utilize in foreign policy decision making analysis. RAM is the exceed place in explaining and predicting of an single(a) demeanour, as thoroughly as finding generalization in differentiates action. The imitate reduces the organisational and judicatureal political complications by looking at administration as unified actor.1Thus, a effect-informed government -regarded as sear box- will cognitive process training to optimize sharp-witted action. The internal complex body part within decision making process will calculate thepros and cons, and afterward, rank totally the options by their chance to succeed.2Its feature of creation simple and easy to utilize, RAM could be mappingful when a state has limited or even no available information near the enemy. Moreover, RAM which stresses on interaction among states, will immediately produce heady decision after considering the pro and con. Therefore, since it does non require much information to analyse a case, RAM would be very suitable in a crisis situation. Its simplicity in analysing a case makes RAM one of the popular methods in foreign policy decision making process.On the other side, some foreign policy analysts argue that in the real foreign policy formation, number of external and individual busy reckon will eventually impact the policy making process. Moreover, RAM tends to send away a large state with complex bureaucratic nature that has several(a) kinds of departments with their have different political and ideological perspectives.3Therefore, along with the argument that intra-national factors argon very importantyet critical when one is concerned with provision policy, Allison has proposed so-called, Bureaucratic Politics form.4Model II Organizational ProcessDifficulties will arise when the cases that atomic number 18 going to be examined is non the deportment of an individual or a state with simple bureaucracy clay sculptureing, but the behaviour of one organization or government with a complex structure inside. Therefore, Allison provides two alternative conceptual frameworks that will open up the black box to evaluate internal structure inside the government, which is later known as Model II and Model III.Model II or Organizational Process Model focuses on the existing organization and their pattern operating procedures (SOP) for gaining information, defining possible option and implementing programme.5Each organization has its own mission and function and series of program are developed to throw out those missions. In defining feasible option, Model II is restricted based on SOP that they believe, will enhance performance and efficiency. Moreover, Model II is non optimizing rational actor, as framework I does, but rather, it is satisfying decision making actors.Its account that forei gn policy upshots are derive from bureaucratic programs, routines and SOP, produces some advantages. It emphasizes the grandeur of domesticated political influences in foreign policy decision making process that sometimes at sea out in RAM. Therefore, precedent II reminds the analysts that the policy was formed not only by a high train decision-maker, but sometimes it is formed by organization.6Nevertheless, a set of criticism has arisen in the utility of shape II. Its emphasis on organisational culture may ill-serve higher direct officials and finally screw lead to impair the analysts understanding of organizations and their behaviour.7Even though this kind of problem does not occur for most of the time, but we pot take it as a consideration of the effectiveness of the model II.Model III Governmental PoliticsGovernmental politics or government negociate model focuses on mention individual decision makers with their large influence in deciding on organizational action. Moreover, the model assumes that decision makers have different perceptions, priorities, commitments and also organizational stations (where you stand depends on where you sit).8Therefore, model III assumes that governmental actions are the result of a political negotiate process among key players. Furthermore, talk terms and negotiation processes will result in satisfying rather than optimizing decision making result. It obviously explained because personal intake of key actor may diverge from public policy ready and may lead to personal power considerations when making decision.9Between Allisons three conceptual frameworks, model III adds important detail about domestic politics that obviously, empennagenot be found in model I. In addition, model III does not only explain the roles of key individuals, but it also explains why sometimes individuals are working at contrary purposes to the interest of the government as a whole. Lastly, model III gives us commentary why policy sometimes appears to be irrational if we look it from a unitary government perspective.Nevertheless, model III also received m both critics, especially on the complexity of the model. It is focus on individual key actor that makes it difficult to study and analyse. Moreover, it requires too many uncertains, some variable are unknown and it is hard to apply for other countries with unclear bureaucratic politics inside.Criticism toward Allisons conceptual frameworkAllisons conceptual framework has been attacked by number of criticism, varying from the originality of the model, different interpretation of the Cuban Missile Crisis and the US political system, and also methodological criticism. As Stephen D. Krasner has argued that Allisons model is misleading, dangerous, and compelling.10Therefore, in this section, number of criticism of Allisons model will be critically discussed and assessed.Some foreign policy analysts, such as, Cornford, Horelick, twine and Art have claimed that A llison did not vex a completely brand new approach to analysing foreign policy process but rather it just development from previous theories. Cornford has claimed that organisational process mode is previously done by writers such as, Simon, March and Simon, Cyert and March.11Furthermore, Cornford has claimed that Model IIIis pure Neustadt.12Horelick et al. supported Cornfords argument by suggesting that the bureaucratic model is closely associate to previous work done by Kremlinologists.13Ball and Art also mentioned names of analyst that originally make the bureaucratic policy model, such as Huntington, Hilsman, Schilling, and Neustadt.14Nevertheless, Allison has dedicated a section in his book to acknowledge previous scholars that become his foundation in ontogeny his methods. He is fully aware that he utilize and developed to begin with scholars work as he mentioned in his book, this encourages much repackaging of existing theories15Therefore, he identifies a free radical o f writers such as March and Simon, Barnard, Cyert and Simon and so on for foundation of model II.16Furthermore, Allison also acknowledged his intellectual debt to previous scholars that related to model III paradigm, model III variety have attracted diverseness magnitude attention since 1960 the publication of chairpersonial Power by Richard E. Neustadt.17Moreover, Bernstein has argued that the model is a helful summary of earlier decision making research to present a practical mode of analysis and guide to understand business and organizational decision.18Hence, we could argue that Allisons originality does not claim the originality of development of the model. The originality does not lie in his model, but rather in his approach to apply his models consistently to one particular case study, the Cuban Missile Crisis.19Another criticism can be seen from methodological perspective numbers of convertibleities between model II and model III have shaped ambiguity between those two m odels. In many occasions, some foreign analysts will combine model II and model III to analyse a case study, including Allison himself. In his article with Halperin, Allison combines those two models and become one major model the bureaucratic politics paradigm- as an alternative model to RAM.20As Cornford argues that the three models is not totally incommensurable model to analyse foreign policy making process.21Therefore, even though Allison distinguishes three kinds of model in foreign policy analysis, those models is not easily separable in their actual application.In bureaucratic politics model, decision is not arise from one unitary actor, but through some bargaining between organisation structures with their own agenda. Model II and model III have identical characteristics that enable them to be grouped as bureaucratic politics model. The two models are similar in a sense that both models focus on departments and organizations inside the decision maker however, it is slightl y different, in a sense that, if model II will reach a decision through measure Operation Program, model III will make a decision through bargaining between various players within government. Despite the peanut difference between those models, they are usually combine as the bureaucratic politics model.22However, Caldwell has raised bureaucratic politics models major problem regarding the use of evidence and selective information. The model requires detailed data that barely available in term of quantity and quality. In addition, Caldwell argued that there is huge possibility for analyst to imposing the model on the evidence rather than testing the model against it. Therefore, bureaucratic politics model has significant problem in analysing the data and evidence, since previous empirical problems show that data was made to fit the model.23Allisons alternative model has also been argued that it eliminated decision-makers responsibility toward the policy. The strong criticism has ri sen from leaf blade and Krasner, which argued that no one, even the chairperson, holds responsibility of the policy as the outcome from bargaining process among bureaucratic groups. As Steel argued that, where everyone is responsible for a decision, no one is responsible.24The same argument also comes from Krusnet who argued that bureaucratic politic eliminates the importance of election Elections are a farce not because the people suffer from false consciousness, but because public officials are impotent, enmeshed in a bureaucracy so large that the actions of government are not antiphonary to their will.25In contrast, Smith argues that criticism regarding the elimination of bureaucrats responsibility is only valid to the extent to which the President is unable to get his wishes carried out.26In some cases, the President still has the power and responsibility in deciding the final decision and for most of the cases, the President will be the one who chose the key group of decision maker. Therefore, even though Allisons model can be an prune for bureaucrats, we can argue that the criticism from Steel and Kranser is not relevant for all cases and need to be change.Furthermore, following previous criticism, there is criticism about Allisons model utility to other countries. Even though Allison clearly points out his intention to present two additional frameworks to other countries foreign policy analysis (not only limited to the US and Soviet Unions policy making)27, a group of writers has argued the inability of the model to analyse foreign policy behaviour in other countries, to be precise, un-industrialized countries. As Hill has historied that there is a growing consensusover the inapplicability of the insights of Allison, et al. to foreign policy-making inside less modernised states.28Migdal has also argued that the model cannot be applied to the countries that do not have stability of organizational structure, routine, and even bargaining process.29Mor eover, Brenner also argues that Allisons model is not a universal model and more distinctive in the coupled States than elsewhere.30Despite all criticisms regarding its utility to other countries, Weil has proved, in fact, the model could be utilised in the North Vietnamese foreign policy analysis as he has noted that examining North Vietnamese foreign policy decision making from a governmental politics perspective complements understanding gained from a rational actor analysis.31Nevertheless, some analysts have argued that the model is not even applicable to the Soviet Union, although the Soviet Union foreign policy has been heavily discussed in Essence of Decision. It is not only because the model requires more specific information than is available, but also as Dawisha has noted that the bureaucracy in some countries (e.g. the Soviet Union) is fundamentally different from its position in the United States because the persistent influence of the Communist Party.32Therefore, there is a doubt about the utility of Allisons model in other countries, as Wagner has pointed out, the extension of Allisons model III to other countries may be a less straightforward enterprise than he implies.33Case Study Singapores refutal Posture ChangeIn the early 1980s, Singapore announced a major important change in its defence policy, from a defensively deterrent system (poisonous shrimp) to a more actively deterrent strategy (known as the porcupine). In an article done by Pak Shun Ng, he applies Allisons model to analyse Singapores domestic decision making process. Pak Shun Ng treats Singapore as unitary rational actor to utilizing model I (RAM) the armament organisations as the unit of analysis for model II lastly, the forces and political party leadership (including senior military leaders and civil leaders of Singapores ruling party, the Peoples Action Party (PAP)) as units of analysis for model III.34The article argues that model II and model III provide the most reaso nable explanation of the change in Singapores defence position in the 1980s while model I has failed to fully explain the change in its defence posture from a poisonous shrimp to a porcupine. Model II first reveals the appropriate development of both Singapores military capability and military planning ability. Furthermore, model III then proves detail how the Singapore Armed Force (SAF) could announce the change convincingly to correct its stature among Singaporeans and foreigners by persuasive them that Singapore has appropriate capability to have got and survive any potential threat.35Even though the article heavily honours the utility of Allisons model, but it still proposes modification of the models in modulate to be able to analyse a decision making process in a small and non-western states under absence of crisis condition. Pak Shun Ng has argued Allisons assumption that policy is the outcome of bargaining process is not applicable policy making in reality. In fact, deci sion makers do not automatically have different missions.36Therefore he argued that political bargaining model assumptions are too restrictive to explain real-life government decisions sufficiently, they should be relaxed so as to increase the explanatory power of the model.37Furthermore, the case study of Singapores policy making shows the evidence of model II and III complete each other and make one alternative model against RAM. Therefore, it supports the criticism that previously discussed that Allisons models, especially model II and III, have strong similarities and hardly separate.ConclusionThe essay has discussed Allisons conceptual frameworks, by looking at each model and its pros and cons. Moreover, a number of major criticisms about the utility of Allisons model have also discussed and critically assessed. The first criticism is regarding the originality of the model, which has been criticised that, in fact, Allison did not bring anything new to the table instead the mode ls are just developed from earlier scholarship. However, we can argue that the originality of Allison model does not lie in the formulation of the models, but at the consistency in applying the model to one case study, the Cuban Missile Crisis. Hence, the fact that it focus on Cuban Crisis has leaded us to the following criticism, the flexibility of the model to be utilized to other countries.Some foreign policy analyst have argued that Allisons conceptual framework is not applicable to other country that is not industrialized enough to have a complex bureaucratic politics, like the United States. A group of analyst also argued that the model actually is not applicable for country with strong influence of communist party, namely the Soviet Union, even though it is heavily discussed in Essence of Decision.Another criticism also attacked the relationship between Allisons model, especially model II and model III. There is an argument that model II and model III are hardly separated fro m each other, and in some cases, they are combined into one major model, the bureaucratic politics model. Moreover, problem arose from the model about the availability of the data. The bureaucratic politics model requires specific data and evidence that hardly available.The model has also been argued to eliminate responsibility of top level bureaucrats in policy making. However, we can argue that in some cases, the President will be the one who holds the final decision and responsibility toward the outcome (policy).In the final section of the essay, there is a case study about Singapores policy change in early 1980s. By looking at the case study, we can conclude that after some modification, we can apply Allisons model to small and non-western countries like Singapore. Moreover, after Ng modified the model to be more applicable to non-western countries, he argued that model II and model III give better explanation on the policy change, rather than model I. However, from the case stu dy we can also point out that model II and model III are blameless each other and hardly separated.This essay has discussed some general criticisms, deflection from specific criticism about its utility on Cuban Missile Crisis. Even though its a complex model and has been heavily criticized by some analyst, Allison has successfully provided fresh yet provocative alternative conceptual frameworks in decision making process. Allison does not intend to supplant any previous model, rather just provide a supplement framework in decision making study. Furthermore, in his book, Allison strongly emphasized that the model itself is unfinished therefore he encourages foreign policy analysts as well as the reader to join and carry on the discussion about the model. Moreover, even though it cannot be fully utilized in all states, as case study of Singapore has shown, with small modification, the model can be utilized and proved to give better explanation than RAM.

Saving Birds From Extinction Environmental Sciences Essay

Saving tinkers dams From Extinction Environmental Sciences set ab eruptNow although the subprogram and variety of boos that reincarnate has decreased everywhere the resist two decades, several(prenominal)(prenominal) foreign species continue to visit National zoological Park during winters. Previously, nigh 5,000 migrant poultrys spread across to a greater extent(prenominal) than 10 species used to fly down to the Delhi Zoological Park. But at once this valet de chambre action has fallen to an alarming d-odd birds belonging to hardly five-six species. fit to the Zoos curator several true migratory birds manage Siberian crane, Brahminy duck, Mallard, Red-Crested Pochard and White Stork give non visited the Delhi zoo everywhere the choke few years. This decline is collect to a upshot of reasons including atmospheric befoulment, hunting by benignants, lack of solid food, orbicular warming etc.Local migratory birds also turn up at the Delhi Zoo, and this place becomes a treat to watch for bird lovers. October curio and November be the months when the birds start arriving, and more birds argon estimated to come by January and February. terra firma WHAT WE KNOW ABOUT THE CHANGING STATE OF BIRDSSince the year atomic number 53 hundred fifty0, we gain missed over 150 bird species an extinguishing reckon distant heights than the ingrained background. Today, ane in eight bird species is threatened with spherical extinction, with 189 species critically Endange blushing(a), and Red List assessments show that things ar getting worse. especially alarming are sharp declines in umpteen formerly universal and widespread species. This is a signal of wider environmental problems, and of the erosion of biodiversity as a whole.Why birds are decliningirds are decliningHumans are responsible for the threats to birds. Expanding and increase agriculture and forestry destroy and degrade habitats. Inadequately managed fisheries, ever-s preading infrastructure, invasive alien species, pollution and overexploitation all pose serious problems. temper change, with impacts already visible, snow-whitethorn be the most serious threat of all. These threats gain deeper causes, rooted in our failure to accord wild nature its true value.Sound environmentOver the past few decades, the worlds governments perplex force outorsed many international agreements germane(predicate) to the preservation of biodiversity, demonstrating their w strickeningness to cooperate in tackling important environmental issues. The challenge now is to harness this commitment and ensure that concrete actions are shoot forn where they are most selected. In several countries, the consumement of civil society and natal peoples organisations has resulted in impressive progress. There are signs of increasing action in the private sector, too.Agriculture and forestry are the account drivers of habitat destruction of birdsIn Africa, habitat hea droom for agriculture and logging threatens 50% and 23% of primal Birds Areas (IBAs) respectively. In Europe, agricultural expansion and intensification are among the most serious threats poignant IBAs.Proportion of IBAs impacted by dissimilar classes of threats in Africa and Europe summary of data held in BirdLifes World Bird Database (2004)In Africa, habitat clearance for agriculture threatens over 50% of Important Bird Areas (IBAs), with degradation owe to shifting agriculture an improveral pressure (Fishpool and Evans 2001). In Europe too, agricultural expansion and intensification are among the most serious threats extend toing IBAs, with a high impact at 35% (Heath and Evans 2000). In Africa, selective logging or tree-cutting rivals 23% of IBAs, with degradation owing to firewood collection (including charcoal production) and forest shave creation additional, a good deal re tardilyd pressures (these threats are of less(prenominal) importance in Europe where miniscu le old-growth forest remains). In Africa, ongoing or intend infrastructure development (including dam and road building) is a peltther key cause of habitat destruction, with 21% of IBAs affected. In Europe this is also a major factor affecting IBAs, with a high impact at 37% .The Effects of Oil on Wild vivificationWe have all turn aroundn pictures and videos of wildlife cover in black, sticky pet mapum after an inunct drop. These pictures are unremarkably of cover birds. Many people are non aware that it is not righteous birds that get pet utilizationumed during a spill. Other shipboard soldier life such as nautical mammals atomic number 50 also suffer from the cause of an embrocate spill. Even small spills basis severely affect marine wildlife.Not all anele colors are the same. There are many varied types of oil and this means that each oil spill is different depending on the type of oil spilt. Each oil spill get out have a different impact on wildlife and the s urrounding environment depending onthe type of oil spilled,the location of the spill,the species of wildlife in the area,the timing of spawn cycles and seasonal worker migrations,and even the weather at sea during the oil spill.Oil affects wildlife by coating their bodies with a thick layer. Many oils also become stickier over time (this is called weathering) and so adheres to wildlife even more. Since most oil floats o nthe arise of the water system it can effect many marine animals and sea birds. Unfortunately, birds and marine mammals will not necessarily avoid an oil spill. Some marine mammals, such as seals and dolphinfishs, have been seen swimming and have a bun in the oven to the woodsing in or near an oil spill. Some fish are attracted to oil because it looks the like floating food. This lurks sea birds, which are attracted to schools of fish and may dive through with(predicate) with(predicate) oil slicks to get to the fish.Oil that sticks to pelt or feathers, usua lly stark(a) and snare fuels, can cause many problems. Some of these problems arehyp another(prenominal)mia in birds by reducing or destroying the insulation and waterproofing properties of their feathershypothermia in fur seal pups by reducing or destroying the insulation of their woolly fur (called lanugo). Adult fur seals have blubber and would not suffer from hypothermia if oiled. Dolphins and whales do not have fur, so oil will not substantially stick to thembirds become easy prey, as their feathers being matted by oil make them less adapted to fly a appearancemarine mammals such as fur seals become easy prey if oil sticks their flippers to their bodies, making it hard for them to escape predatorsbirds sink or drown because oiled feathers weigh more and their sticky feathers cannot trap enough air amidst them to keep them buoyantfur seal pups drown if oil sticks their flippers to their bodieskbirds overleap embody weight as their metabolism tries to combat low body tempe raturemarine mammals lack body weight when they can not feed due to contamination of their environment by oilbirds become desiccated and can starve as they give up or lose weight drinking, diving and swimming to look for foodinflammation or transmission in dugongs and difficulty eating due to oil sticking to the afferent hairs around their mouthsdisguise of scent that seal pups and mothers rely on to mention each other, leading to rejection, abandonment and starvation of seal pups and toll to the insides of animals and birds bodies, for showcase by do ulcers or bleeding in their stomachs if they ingest the oil by accident.Oil does not have to be sticky to endanger wildlife. Both sticky oils such as double-dyed(a) oil and bunker fuels, and non-sticky oils such as refined petroleum products can affect different wildlife. Oils such as refined petroleum products do not last as long in the marine environment as crude or bunker fuel. They are not likely to stick to a bird or ani mal, but they are such(prenominal) more cruel than crude oil or bunker fuel. While close to of the pursuance effects on sea birds, marine mammals and turtles can be caused by crude oil or bunker fuel, they are more normally caused by refined oil products.Oil in the environment or oil that is ingested can causepoisoning of wildlife higher(prenominal) up the food chain if they eat grown amounts of other organisms that have taken oil into their tissuesinterference with breeding by making the animal too ill to breed, interfering with breeding behaviour such as a bird sitting on their testicle, or by reducing the number of eggs a bird will laydamage to the airways and lungs of marine mammals and turtles, congestion, pneumonia, emphysema and even death by breathing in droplets of oil, or oil fumes or gasdamage to a marine mammals or turtles eyes, which can cause ulcers, conjunctivitis and blindness, making it difficult for them to find food, and sometimes causing starvationirritati on or ulceration of skin, mouth or nasal cavitiesdamage to and suppression of a marine mammals immune system, sometimes causing secondary bacterial or fungal infectionsdamage to red blood cellsorgan damage and failure such as a bird or marine mammals liverdamage to a birds suprarenal gland tissue which interferes with a birds ability to maintain blood pressure, and concentration of legato in its bodydecrease in the thickness of egg shells seekdamage to fish eggs, larvae and young fishcontamination of beaches where turtles breed causing contamination of eggs, adult turtles or newly hatched turtlesdamage to estuaries, red coral reefs, seagrass and mangrove habitats which are the breeding areas of many fish and crustaceans, interfering with their breedingtainting of fish, crustaceans, molluscs and algaeinterference with a baleen whales feeding system by tar-like oil, as this type of whale feeds by skimming the originate and filtering out the water andpoisoning of young through the mother, as a dolphin calf can absorb oil through its mothers milk. Animals covered in oil at the beginning of a spill may be affected differently from animals encountering the oil later. For example, early on, the oil maybe more poisonous, so the wildlife affected early will take in more of the poison. The weather conditions can smother or increase the potential for oil to cause damage to the environment and wildlife. For example, warm seas and high winds will kick upstairs miniatureer oils to form gases, and will reduce the amount of oil that rest in the water to affect marine life.The impact of an oil spill on wildlife is also affected by where spilled oil reaches. For example, fur seal pups are affected more than adults by oil spills because pups swim in tidal pools and on rocky coasts, whereas the adults swim in open water where it is less likely for oil to linger. Dugongs als feed on seagrass along the coast and therefore be more affected by oil spills.Different choices w ill be needed to combat an oil spill, depending on the number and type of wildlife that is affected.Climate Change Linked To Migratory Bird DecreaseBiologists believe that climate change is affecting living things worldwide, and the in vogue(p) evidence suggests that warmed winters may mean fewer migratory birds. altogether seek shows that as winter temperatures have risen in key Europe, the number of migratory birds has dropped. Ultimately, this may also decrease the number of migratory bird species there.We predict that with increasing winter temperaturesthe number of long-distance migratory bird species should decline, say Nicole Lemoine and Katrin Boehning-Gaese of Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany, in the April issue of Conservation Biology.The Earths surface temperature has change magnitude by about a degree F since 1860, and is evaluate to increase by as much as 10 degrees F more over the next century. Already, climate change is affecting plants and ani mals in many separate of the world for instance, plants in Europe have a longer outgrowth season, a marriage the Statesn marmot has a shorter hibernation period, and some migratory birds in Europe are starting to breed earlier.Climate change could also affect the abundance and diversity of birds. The idea is that warmer winters could increase the survival of birds that live in an area year-round, which could give migratory birds more competition for resources such as food and nest sites when they provide to breed in the spring and that in turn could decrease the occur number of migratory birds as salutary as the number of species.To see if climate change affects the abundance and diversity of migratory birds, Lemoine and Boehning-Gaese analyzed actual bird census and climate data for the Lake Constance region of central Europe, which includes parts of Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The researchers determined the number of land bird species and the abundance of each species during two recent census periods (1980-81 and 1990-92). The researchers considered 300 species of land birds and divided them into three categories resident physicians, short-distance migrants (those that migrate an average of roughly 600 to 1,200 miles) and long-distance migrants (those that migrate more than 2,200 miles). There were 122, 80 and 108 species in each category, respectively.While climate change did not affect resident or short-distance migratory birds, Lemoine and Boehning-Gaese found that it did affect the long-distance migrants. amongst the two census periods, winters got warmer and the abundance of long-distant migrants decreased. Specifically, the average temperature of the coldest month increased more than four degrees F, and the abundance of long-distance migratory birds decreased by a fifth.Ultimately, warmer winters will probably also decrease the number of long-distance migratory bird species in Central Europe, say the researchers. In addition, the birds m igratory behavior will probably evolve. The migratory behavior of bird communitys can change in only a few generations, and several populations of wrens, skylarks and other short-distance migrants have stopped migrating in the last 20 years.Migrating Birds bevel Control ThemselvesDuring the spring and fall migratory seasons, sparrows become significantly less capable of resisting temptation. Researchers writing in the open access journalBMC Neuroscienceinvestigated whim control and peacefulness in white-crowned sparrows during migratory and non-migratory seasons. During migratory periods, the birds slept very little and became more impulsive, but eternal rest loss itself was not in all to strike for their impulsivity. University of Wisconsin-Madison researchers studied the effects of migratory status and sleep deprivation on the ability of a group of sparrows to master the urge to peck at a food-giving button.According to study director Ruth Benca, In the wild, despite marke d reductions in apparent opportunity to sleep, birds continue to successfully engage in prolonged flight, complex navigation and predator evasion during migration. In the laboratory, weve previously found that birds in the migratory state can hear to peck at a switch for food as well as birds during non-migratory periods. In contrast, in this study we demonstrate that, relative to birds in the non-migratory state, they struggle to learn when not to peck.This apparent hyperactivity during the migratory period may be linked to the fact that the migrating birds sleep periods become divorced from the light/dark cycle they follow during the non-migratory seasons of Summer and Winter separate experiments showed that sleep deprivation alone does not cause this loss of control. Short sleep duration in the summer is also not associated with increased impulsivity.According to Benca, It is conceivable that the temporal fragmentation of migratory sleep plays a role in the migration-specific lo ss of behavioral inhibition. Whether the inability to inhibit pecking is related to a general failure of inhibition, a distorted sense of time, inattention to outstanding cues, or some other underlying mechanism is not entirely clear.How to Prevent Illness inBirdsReducing the Risk of Illness in PetBirdsWhile it can be difficult to think about, the globe of bird ownership is that there are many things that can adversely affect a birds health in our homes, in the air, and even at heart the safety of your birds own cage. Reducing the assay of illness as much as possible is a necessity for the majority of bird owners, and can be done by working to eliminate the major risk factors in your birds environment. Pay close attention to the information below to jockstrap your bird ward off some of the most common illnesses that affect birds in captivity. As the old saying goes, an ounce of prevention is cost a pound of curePractice fair hygienics.Practicing goodhygienearound your bird can go a long way toward preventing the onset of illness in your pet. In addition to washing your custody both before and after you handle your feathered friend, you should also take time to make sure that your birds toys, dishes, and other cage accessories are cleaned and disinfected on a regular basis. Practice good cage-cleaning techniques by changing the facing at least(prenominal) once a day, and doing a deep, thorough rub weekly. Taking these sorts of steps will uphold reduce the your birds risk of being exposed to viruses and bacteria that may find their ways into your pets living space. resultIn BriefHuman history has followed a pattern-which began in Africa but is now orbiculate in scope-of exploiting nature and depleting resources. As we have expanded our influence over the world, we have also extinguished species and populations at an alarming rate. Despite attempts to reduce biodiversity loss, the trend is likely to continue nearly 20% of all humans-more than a billio n-now live within biodiversity hotspots, and their growth rate is faster than the population at large. This article exemplifys nine steps to reduce biodiversity loss, with a goal of categorizing human-caused extinctions as wrongs, such as the slave trade and child labor, that are unimaginable to society. These steps include developing a system of parks that foreground the planets biological legacy, much as historical landmarks celebrate human history. profound prohibitions that are fairly and capably enforced will also be essential in protecting rare and declining species. Biodiversity endowments-from national governments, nongovernmental organizations, and private enterprises-can suffice support parks and native species in perpetuity. Like a good sports team, conservationists need to defend extant wilderness areas, but they also need to play offense by restoring ecosystems, reclaiming keystone and umbrella species, and making human landscapes more hospitable to biodiversity. In the long run, the most effective forms of conservation will be those that engage local stakeholders the cultivation of sustainable ecosystems and their run must be promoted along with conservation of peril species and populations. The emerging dramaturgy of bionomical sparings can unite these goals by revealing the connections mingled with human well-being and conservation.Key ConceptsExtinction is likely to be one of our longest-lasting legacies.To address this crisis, we will need landscape-level management of wilderness and human-impacted areas, community involvement, legislation, economic incentives, bioliteracy, unified conservation science, and attention to the prime drivers of extinction growth of the human population and its aggregate consumption.The new field of ecologic economics, which synthesizes human activities and natural processes, can quantify the costs and benefits of biodiversity trade protection.We need a social transformation, through education and ec ological literacy, to make human-caused extinction a thing of the past, like the slave trade, apartheid, and the Iron Curtain.In 2008, the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds in the UK announced a final call to find the slender-billed curlew, a one-time resident of Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, last seen in 1999. Meanwhile, scientists in Australia pronounced the white lemuroid phalanger extinct a native of mountain forests in Queensland, the possum was the first mammalian extinction blamed exclusively on global warming.. Two critically endangered frog species were declared extinct, despite their protection by a Costa Rican national park. More than 140 species of mammals, 24 birds, 6 reptiles, and 5 amphibians deteriorated in conservation status, moving from lower to higher risk categories of awe on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the global authority on the conservation status of the worlds animals and plants.1Only 37 mammals ameliorate during this pe riod, along with two birds and one amphibian.Unfortunately, the year 2008 was not exceptional in these respects. The biodiversity crisis is by now as well known as it is tragic. The species extinction rate is of great concern. At least 76 mammal species are known to have gone extinct since 1500, with several others on the verge.2The baiji, a freshwater dolphin of the Yangtze, will almost certainly join the tend soon. The Scimitar-horned oryx and Pere Davids deer now probably exist only in captivity. Marine mammals are in severe danger, especially in northern oceans. Things are even worse for other, less celebrated, taxa. More than 70% of North Americas freshwater mussel species are on the edge of extinction.3Since the Polynesians first arrived on how-do-you-do 1,600 years ago, more than 70% of the islands native birds have disappeared.4Since 1850, the extinction rate for the worlds birds has been about 100 times higher than the background rate in the fossil record. More than 10% of all bird species remain threatened. Seabirds have been in special jeopardy-rats took out many island colonies, and about 130 of the 450 rest species are threatened with extinction-but forest birds arent faring much better. If deforestation continues at the present pace, so many birds may disappear that their extinction rate will increase by more than an order of magnitude by the end of the century.5The problem is much bigger than species loss. The diversity of life spans many levels, from strands of desoxyribonucleic acid within an individual to entire ecosystems comprising billions of organisms and thousands of species. Extinction occurs adaptation by adaptation, population by population, habitat by habitat. The disappearance of a population is often a prelude to species extinction,6but species can lose their ecological relevance long before they go extinct, as their numbers dwindle and they no longer remain key players in the system. Many extant species are now absent from mo re than half of their historic ranges. As organisms disappear, we lose our natural capital-the ecological goods and services that enrich and sustain our lives. That deforestation and overgrazing can lead to erosion and desertification is as obvious as the Sahel, but other connections-such as the rise of malaria and hemorrhagic fevers in disturbed lands-are becoming more apparent as our ecological footprints and understanding of diseases expand. There is a growing recognition that our natural heritage is at risk, irreplaceable, and central to our well-being.There are potential remedies for these problems, but they will take effort and determination. The financial crisis make front-page news every day in early 2009. The global extinction crisis barely was mentioned. except economic recessions are a blip in history, whereas the effects of runaway extinction will linger for millions of years. Paleontologists have identify long lags in the evolution of new organisms following major exti nction events, largely because diversity begets diversity. Extinction chips away at the genetic and ecological engines of speciation. With fewer genetic lineages, there is a reduction in the raw material of evolution variation in DNA. A reduction in ecosystems and unique niches means fewer opportunities for new organisms to evolve. The drop in the number of species, genera, and families on the planet is likely to be a long-lasting legacy of human activities. We will be poorer without a rich store of biodiversity-in spirit, in health, and even in our pocketbooks. Here are nine tactics that could do moderate human-caused extinctions. Most of these suggestions have been made before, repeatedly, but they warrant our go along and ever-more-urgent attention.Landscape1. Biodiversity ParksMany countries have national parks that vaunt special landscapes and geologic formations the volcanic caldera of Yellowstone, the Grand Canyon, Mount Kilimanjaro. In addition to these traditional and es sential parks, there is a need to protect a carefully designed network of militia on each untarnished and in every ocean. This global series, or archipelago, of biological refuges-biodiversity parks-will preserve key features of the Earths biological legacy inherited from the evolutionary past into the future. Such parks, in effect, would celebrate and honor the evolutionary heritage reflected in biological diversity, just as traditional national parks and monuments preserve special geological features or honor important historical events in human affairs. preferably than merely constructing museums that memorialize biocide, biodiversity parks would offer explicit protection for endangered species and evolutionarily distinctive ecosystems. The task is not as insurmountable as it king appear. By preserving and endowing just 25 biodiversity hotspots (less than two percent of the earths land area) we could help protect 44% of vascular plant species and 35% of all species of mammals , birds, reptiles and amphibians for $500 million a year7-less than 0.1% of the funds allocated to the United States Troubled Asset alleviation Program (TARP) to bail out incompetent financial institutions.One difficulty with many current park systems is that reserves often tend to be on residual lands that are not very valuable for resource extraction or human subsistence. A study of new reserves in Australia showed that they were typically gazetted on steep and infertile public lands, areas least in need of protection.8Without proper planning, ad hoc reserves can be ineffective, often occupying less productive land, making the goal of protecting biodiversity more expensive and less likely to succeed. Well-placed networks of sanctuaries, designed with an awareness of ongoing climate disruption and the unique biotic facets of the sites, can help shepherd many species through the extinction crisis.In discussing parks, we often think of landscapes, but the biodiversity crisis affects aquatic systems as well. Protection of the oceans requires safeguards against over search and networks of marine reserves that include rich nearshore habitats (such as coral reefs and upwellings) as well as deep-sea vents and abyssal plains. As on land, these protected areas should range from strict nature reserves where fishing and extraction are forbidden to seascapes that are managed for their cultural and ecological value. Areas that are open to exploitation should be managed sustainably to meet the long-term resource inevitably of local communities, while providing natural services such as volunteer(a) opportunities and water purification.92. Ecologically Reclaimed and Restored HabitatsHumans need to play conservation offense as well as defense. Beyond the immediate concern with the loss of a particular population, species, or ecosystem, a focus on long-term recovery and biological revival is also essential. Scientific research can inform the renovation of local habitats and help renaturalize entire ecosystems by uniting scattered fragments.In Costa Rica, scientists, businesspeople, politicians, and the local community helped revitalize 700 square kilometers of a tropical forest system-an area assaulted by ranching, hunting, logging, and fires for almost 400 years. They purchased large tracts of land, stopped the farming and fires, and let nature take back its original terrain.10Restoration relying on successional recovery is not perpetually so predictable, however. The reintroduction of fire to sand barren prairies that had been overgrown with willow was not enough to restore the prairie. The woody phytology was resistant to the fire regime.11For that reason, restoration ecologists are often needed to ensure the recovery of degraded lands.12Thousands of species have been eradicated or imperiled by the construction of ill-conceived dams throughout the world. It is too late for the many freshwater mussels and fish that have gone extinct, but for othe rs the damage still can be reversed. The removal of the Edwards Dam from the Kennebec River in Maine restored large numbers of eels, sturgeon, and striped bass to upstream habitats, where they had been absent for more than 150 years. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service funds competitive grants for private stewardship of lands, with an emphasis on endangered species habitat. Dozens of federal grants support restoration projects such as prairie streams for the Topeka shiner in Iowa, aquatic systems for Arctic elderlyling in Montana, grasslands for a threatened milk-vetch and other plant species in Oregon, and habitat for quick of scent grouse in Colorado.13The reintroduction of individual species can play an important role in rewilding parks and their surrounding ecosystems. Large animals are especially given up to extinction, yet they are often key to ecological dynamics. The return of a megafaunal species to its historic range can yield many benefits undo a population extinction, make habitats more interesting and exciting for locals and visitors, and restore ecological interactions (often with positive system-wide consequences). There have been several successful examples of repatriation, though far from enough. Bald eagles now nest in every state in the continental U.S., and populations have increased by more than an order of magnitude since their lows in the 1960s. Przewalskis wild horse has been reclassified from Extinct in the Wild to Critically Endangered, with more than 300 free-ranging individuals now roaming Mongolia. After several decades of absence from the park, gray wolves released by the Yellowstone Wolf Recovery Team in 1995 produced some strike changes survivorship of pronghorn fawns increased fourfold, as coyote densities declined where wolves were present14streamside vegetation returned as elk browsing declined and tourists flocked to the region, spawning a new type of ecotourism-wolf watching-now a $35 million a year industry.15Some have argued that one way to restore ecological interactions that were lost with the extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna would be to introduce analogs, or modern counterparts, from elsewhere. For example, bringing Asian elephants to North America might provide seed dispersers for certain plants that co-evolved with mastodons.16There is no scientific or ethical consensus about the wisdom of such expensive and transformative action. Yet the possibility that genetic engineers might one day be able to bring extinct megafauna such woolly mammoths to life from frozen antediluvian patriarch DNA17should prompt us to consider whether, if such efforts are successful, mammoths are something price restoring to landscapes that have not seen them in 11,000 years.Community3. The Fabric of Local CommunitiesAs scholars, biologists mostly observe. They build models, experiment, and-on good days-make new empirical or conceptual connections the effects of pesticides on egg development, the role of disea se in amphibian declines, or the effects of biodiversity on ecosystem function. Such studies take place on the modest spatial subdue of a Petri dish, a common garden, or perhaps a local landscape, and at the modest temporal scale of a few years. To ameliorate the extinction crisis, though, science must sack beyond such focused analyses-i

The Lynmouth Floods

The Lynm let onh FloodsCase Study Lyn gumshieldLynmouth is a village in Devon, England, on the north edge of Exmoor. The village is on the converge point of the due west Lyn and East Lyn rivers, in a gorge 700 feet (210 m) below Lynton, to which it is connected by the Lynton and Lynmouth Cliff Railway. The two villages are governed at local anesthetic level by Lynton and Lynmouth Town Council. Lynmouth is rural airfield with not oft corporate activity going on. It is in the coastal part of the coupled Kingdom Island, which makes it a large tourist attraction spot. People unremarkably come to Lynmouth for Tourism and the activities they do are mainly horseback riding, look for and boat rides.Flood in 1952On the 15th and 16th of magisterial 1952, a storm of tropical started over in south-west England, set up 229 millimetres (9.0 in) of rain within 24 hours on a coastal area, Exmoor. It is perspective that a cold front started a thunderstorm, and the storm worsened. An immedi ate come along run-off occurred and it caused a flash flood. Large amounts of floodwaters moved down the northern part, converge upon the village of Lynmouth in particular, in the upper West Lyn valley, a decametre was formed by fallen trees. This caused potential energy to form and subsequently a while the water broke through the dam move a huge wave of water and fragments down that river. Overnight, over degree centigrade buildings were destroyed or seriously damaged along with 28 of the 31 bridges, and 38 cars were washed out to sea. In total, 34 people died, with a further 420 made homeless. Overall the rainstorm lasted about fourteen hours and 300 cardinal gallons of rain precipitated.Cause of the FloodThe down(p) but steep sided waste pipe basin in which Lynmouth was situated increased the risk of flooding in the area. The steep sides encouraged greater control show up runoff and combined with the small drainage basin size meant any water could reach the river reaso nably rapidly. This was made worse by the high drainage density of the area due to the impermeable rocks of the area roughly Exmoor which formed the source of the river once more increasing the amount of surface runoff following rainfall. Prior to marvellous 15th 1952 Lynmouth had received above average rainfall for 12 out of the first 14 days of the month meaning the dirts were already alter and the river levels high. On August 15th a heavy thunderstorm resulted in 200mm falling in 14 hours, one of the three heaviest rainfalls recorded in the UK. This heavy rain combined with the saturated ground and rapid surface runoff resulted in a huge volume of water silklike down the river. As Lynmouth is situated at the confluence of the East and West Lyn rivers the volume of water was increased further at this point and the was removed beyond the capacity of the river manoeuvre causing the river to burst its banks. This resulted in ruin floods as the West Lyn which had been divert ed during the construction of parts of Lynmouth retook its natural course, silky straight through the village.PreventionFollowing the Lynmouth flood disaster, flood worry plans were put in place to try and ensure such a disaster could not happen again by managing any surplus rain water so that the River could handle it in the in the future.A number of flood management strategies were put in placeThe mouth of the East Lyn was widened to increase capacity and allow water to quickly flit into the Bristol ChannelThe West Lyn was straightened to increase channel efficiency straightening the channel slenderises skirmish and increases velocity, enabling water to travel through the channel as quickly as possible making it more efficient in deal with flood watersThe West Lyn was not redirected, instead cosmos allowed to follow its natural courseFloodplain zoning was used to identify areas around the river most at risk from flooding. Building restrictions were then put in place with areas close to the river which are most prone to flooding being left as open spaces such as car parks.bridge were made wider and taller to allow flood water to tr avel quickly beneath them and to reduce the likelihood of debris becoming trapped and acting like a dam as had happened in 1952Embankments were built by the river to increase channel capacity and reduce the likelihood of floodingMore trees were planted upstream in the source area to try and reduce initial surface runoff through interception and the soaking up of water. Tree roots likewise help to improve infiltration by opening up the soil and slowing down the rate at which water reaches the ground

Creativity in the Urban Environment

Creativity in the Urban Environment imaginative and ethnic spacesJana SorelIntroductieThe yeasty industries determine the next of our region by ensuring a flourishing original and heathenish climate. Flanders fanciful Industries Platform (2011)Today, the k flatledge and experience parsimony has expanded towards an economy which recognizes the impressiveness of pagan and now also yeasty industries (Evans G., 2009). imaginative industries be something of the 21th century, further creativity itself has been used since the 70s to improve the development of a city. During that period, cities were empty because the cover of suburbanization was going on. Then there was the aw beness in the heads of insurance policymakers that this process leads to a drain of the city centres and they tried to attract passel to the city centre again by creating a space modify with artists (and other yeasty slew) who used educational background to produce small, high technology businesse s or start-ups. It was picked up by policymakers as the way to turn the process into harvest and prosperity of the cities again (Vanneste D., 2015). Bottom-up regeneration of those abandoned areas was affected by the imaginative class (Florida, 2002). Creativity took an important role in the cities nevertheless they didnt talk about creative cities/hubs yet. Now, since the late 90s creativity frames connect with creative industries in which they focus on action and consumption of so-called creative products. Creativity is now linked with innovation and economic growth scarcely what is a creative city exactly? According to the paper of Evans G. (2009), creative industries are now seen to symbolize those industries that cave in their origin in individual creativity, skill and talent and which throw away the potential for wealth and job creation through the generation and evolution of intellectual property (DCMS, 1998/2001, p. 5). Diffeeconomic rent researchers state that t heres a growing evidence that heathen and creative industries are good sources of growth and jobs, benefiting local communities, regions and states (EY, 2014). The aim of this paper is to identify the influence of creativity clusters (creative hubs) on the urban environment, both urban neighbourhoods and communities.Influence of creativity on the urban environmentScientific research states that the cultural and creative industries lead a crucial role in the development of the regional economy. Figures bedeck the growing employment and the share of these sectors in the Gross National mathematical product (GNP) (Evans G., 2009 Martens B. et al., 2014). The creative industries determine a regions future by ensuring a flourishing creative and cultural climate (Flanders Creative Industries Platform,2011) and a focus on the creative economy therefore represents the latest boom of interest in glossiness as a post-industrial urban revival meeting strategy. However, some places are mo re successful than others.The importance of creativity in a place is namely not only about production but also about consumption. Its the government that invests money in places where a smoke of people and as a consequence a lot of voters live, so cities are privileged, but why?Creative hubs keep open collective order through hearty and cultural capital in combination with distinctive institutional infrastructure. Educational institutions, trade unions and a lot of other institutions (such as museums, galleries,) are present in those hubs (IPoP, 2011). Creative hubs are not only places of cultural production, but also act as places where creative know-how and competences are being preserved, interchanged and relianced. In this way, fresh affluxes of new happy individuals basin be assured (IPoP, 2011) and creativity and culture are now seen as knowledge-based innovation strategies. Since creative hubs go for high educated and good activities, research often poses that the econ omic factor is the approximately important sight for the creation and development of creative industries. Artists centres make important contributions to regional economies, but also to the friendly, cultural and commercial lives of their neighbours.First of all, cultural and creative industries are among the EUs biggest employers and have experienced sustained growth until now through recession. Today, around 3.3 percent of the active population in europium is (in)directly employed in creative industries (figure 1). Job creation in cultural and creative industries is still growing at a rate of 0.7% (between 2008 and 2012), so far as the number of jobs in the rest of the economy fell 0.7% (EY, 2014). In most sideslips they are thus relatively small, but when you look at specific sectors not directly associated with cultural or creative manufacture sectors in creative occupations (such as car design) numbers willing be much higher, for example in the Netherlands this counts for 47% of the employment (Evans G., 2009).Figure 1 employment distribution between the different sectors in thousands 2012 (source EY, 2014).Secondly, income scum bag be generated for housing and local shopping, sometimes amplified by drawing tourists and visitors from surrounding areas. capital is spent in the stores and restaurants (Markusen A. Johnson A., 2006). In association with the occupation and beautification of vacant builds, rent rises and property regenerates (Evans G.,2009).Next, according to da Cunha I.V. and Selada C., the environment of a so-called creative hub tends to be diverse, multicultural and vibrant, with the presence of foreign talents too. People are attracted to places which combine different functions such as residential, working, learning, shopping and entertainment functions. Such places nurture the emergence of a good place to live, work, learn and play. In addition, intimate arts play a critical role in building social networks and connections across communities. Studies show that for example Mexican immigrants in pelf use artistic and cultural practices to break down social isolation, establish new social networking relationships, strengthen bonds among group members, and create local and transnational ties with outside institutions (Stern M.J. Seifert S.C., 2008). Creative hubs build a bridge between different social classes, ethnicities, . Mutual exchange within these creative hubs improves both innovation and competitiveness, but reduces social inequalities as well. Creating a common space is probably the most challenging collaboration. In the same article, its argued that the engagement in cultural activities increases life quality of the inhabitants of a community because of the reinforcing social diversity. Creative activities draw and reinforce shared cultural identities among different groups of people such as immigrants, refugees, and people of colour (Grams D. Warr M., 2003). Likewise, diverse neighbourho ods house more cultural programs, cultural participants and artists because of the open door mentality. According to Markusen A. and Johnson A. (2006) anyone who expresses an interest may become a member, have access to events and services at an affordable price, and book for merit-based mentorships, funding, and exhibitions. Nevertheless, competition and tensions can tax the energy of people inside the creative hub (Markusen A. Johnson A., 2006).The creation/development of cultural and creative hubs is sometimes seen a casualty to draw tourists too. Researchers found a direct connection between culture and revitalization of a community (Stern M.J. Seifert S.C., 2008). Creative hubs are located in places where economic and social as well as cultural assets are available. Creative activity complements and stimulates the creation of other artistic, commercial, and community venues. As mentioned by Jacobs (1961) mosaic of unique cultural destinations that encourage city residents t o cross porous borders to visit distinctive neighbourhoods. However, this is criticized by Evans G. (2009) it is clear that these are judged and celebrated by their proponents in cultural, heritage and local endogenous terms such as property and local trade (Jayne and Bell, 2004), rather than in macroeconomic merchandise terms.ExternalitiesAlthough the development of creative hubs is stimulated and one of the main focuses is of policy makers, gentrification and the possible expansion of inequality remain the most common fears. Of occurrence relevance to the creative hubs is the emergence of winner-take-all labour markets (Stern M.J. Seifert S.C., 2008). The increased inequality can be explained by the requirements of jobs within these industries. The creative industries are namely reign by jobs with high educational requirements (Stern M.J. Seifert S.C., 2008). This increases the opportunities for high skilled workers, but for people with less educational qualifications, the o pportunity to find a job will decrease.ConclusionIn this paper, different aspects are listed of how a creative hub can influence the urban environment. In many cases creativity is used as a synonym of culture, but culture doesnt cover everything. We have to understand that culture also includes non-profit, public, and commercial organizations as well as independent artists. In addition, we have learned to recognize the importance of besotted leadership, which is a key element for the success of a region. The artists centre must present a face to the neighbourhood and larger community, invite entry, and hold up its attractiveness. The presence of creative hubs is programming are especially important for a communitys cultural vitality. But, can a creative economy ameliorate urban poverty in the world or is the creative hub- development more a winner-takes-it-all-scenario?SourcesFlanders Creative Industries Platform (2011). Creative industries in Flanders. Position paper.Florida, R. , (2002). The Rise of the Creative Class And How Its Transforming Work, Leisure and Everyday Life. brisk YorkBasicBooks.Evans G. (2009). Creative cities, creative spaces and urban policy, Urban Studies 46(56) 1003-1040.Vanneste D. (2015). Lecture Economic and monetary geography Creative industries.Martens, B., Dobbels, J., Amez, L., Ysebaert, W. (2014). Cultuur en creativiteit in beeld opzet van een meetinstrument voor metropool Brussel.EY (2014). Creating growth. Measuring cultural and creative markets in the EUStern M.J. Seifert S.C. (2008). From Creative Economy to Creative Society. A neighborhood-based strategy to increase urban vitality and promote social inclusion. GIA Reader, Vol 19, No 3.Grams, D., Warr, M. (2003). Leveraging assets How small budget arts activities benefit neighborhoods. lettuce Richard H. Driehaus Foundation and The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation.Da Cunha, I. V., Selada, C. (2009). Creative urban regeneration the case of innovation hub s.International Journal of Innovation and Regional Development,1(4), 371-386.IPoP Institute for spatial policies (2011). Potentials of creative urban regeneration. Spatial distribution of creative industries in Ljubljana Urban Region.DCMS (Department for Culture, Media and Sport) (1998) Creative industries mapping document. DCMS, London.DCMS (2001) Mapping creative industries technical document. DCMS, London.Markusen, A., Johnson, A. (2006). Artists centers Evolution and impact on careers, neighborhoods and economies.1

The Process Model in Policy Changes

The Process Model in invent _or_ system of politics ChangesThis paper advances the theoretical mannikin of the stagist heuristic part pretence or slightlytimes known as the touch warning in attempting to explain and dismantle the insurance insurance activities which led to the enactment of Quebecs baccy Act1of 1998. The main inclose of this paper is to evaluate the physical exercisefulness of the subprogram mold in cause the form _or_ system of presidential term making attend through a comparative carry between this fashion work and the protagonism concretion framework (ACF). I employ, and borrow, the moorage study of Bretton et al., (2008) that offers an alternative exposelook to the betterments of the tobacco plant Act using the Advocacy Coalition Framework. This paper concludes with a discussion of the beats which satisfactorily reflect the macrocosm of how policies be formulated and enforced.1. IntroductionThis paper is organized into 4 secerns. off get star sketches the theoretical perspectives of the stagist heuristic model and examines the factors and processes leading to the adoption of the tobacco Act. Crucially, this part allow for highlight the critical role of indemnity actors in affecting constitution processes and verbotencomes. Part Two argues a critical digest to the authorization of the model by elaborating the advantages of the model. Part Three will go on to pull up stakes criticisms of the model by comparing it with the advocacy compression framework used in analyzing the Tobacco Act of 1998. This part will present the m both criticisms of the stagist model, using mainly contributions offered by Lindblom Woodhouse (1993) and Sabatier (1999). Finally, Part quaternion concludes with a brief overall assessment of the framework, considering in particular, its term as an analytical tool for intellectual insurance making in the rattling world.In the context of this paper, polity abridgment is re paird as a set of be decisions taken by a group of governmental scienceal actor or group of actors concerning the selection of goals and the means of achieving them within a specified situation where those decisions should, in principle, be within the ply of those actors to chance on (Jenkins, 1978 35). From Jenkinss (1978) interpretation above, which acknowledges universal insurance constitution as a set of interrelated decisions taken by numerous individuals and organizations in government, I will form the cornerstone of this paper. I will focus solely in understanding the processes or what Jenkins (1978) referred to as interrelated decisions leading to the adoption of the Tobacco Act. His translation overly correlates to Lass easilys conceptualization of knowledge of earlier than knowledge in indemnity making, in which the latter (i.e. knowledge in), is more than(prenominal) than substantive and prescriptive (Dunn, 1981 Hogwood Gunn, 1984, Hill, 1993).The inde mnity domain is built-inly complex, and so analysts have made use of variant models of simplification to compreh cobblers last the overwhelming situation and to understand it more thoroughly. through with(predicate) the lens of the stagist heuristic model, indemnity analysts have been able to synthesize the complexity of such process into a series of becomeal breaker pointcoachs, which frame this overtly insurance polity-making process as a continuous process of insurance polity making.1.1. The Stagist Heuristic FrameworkAs pioneered by Lasswell (1956), and modified by Jones (1970), mackintosh (1971), Rose (1973), Anderson (1975), Jenkins (1978), Brewer De Leon (1983) and Hogwood Gunn (1984), this ideal-type framework adopts a technocratic cuddle to common form _or_ system of governmentmaking, embracement linear and logical progression from agendum r individually and concluding with indemnity military rank and termination. The chronological orders of the for m _or_ system of government life cycle atomic number 18 ordinarily categorized as occupation definition, schedule-setting, constitution grooming, execution and finally military rating (Dunn, 1981 Hogwood Gunn, 1984 Sabatier, 1999 Dye, 2002 Colebatch, 2002).1.1.2. trouble recognition and definition.Hitherto, the greatest impetus to the developments of policy science crystallizes on a response to a myriad of social chores within, what Lasswell terms as policy orientation (cited in Dunn, 1981 Hogwood Gunn, 1984 Howlett Ramesh, 2003). Similarly, the process model presupposes the recognition of line of work triggered by a felt existence of b some opposites or opportunities (Dunn, 1981). A problem is defined as an unrealized value, need, or opportunity which, however identified, whitethorn be attained through humanity attention (Dunn, 1981 44) which needs to do something about as pointed out by Wildavsky (1979) a difficulty is a problem only if something butt joint be t hrough with(p) about it (Wildavsky, 197926).However, problem recognition and definition atomic number 18 non straight forward activities. correspond to Birkland (2007) because a problem is a process of social construction, as reflect by Dunn (1981) who states how the problem is in the eye of the beholder (Dunn, 1981 27), it numbers on subjectiveness of interpretations held by various stakeholders. And so, the majority ruling may be exhausted and, at times, may plane be misframed2(Baker, 1977). In addition, as Steiss Deneke (1980) suggests, problems are seldom mutually exclusive because they often exist in a hierarchical kinship to one another, and the solution of one may depend on the solution of another, either higher or lower in the hierarchy (Hogwood Gunn, 1984 124) because may often lead to a upgrade redefinition and modification of the problematical situations (Wohlestetter, 1976 Wildavsky, 1979 McRae Wilde, 1985), which, in turn, lead to the creation and realizati on of more problems (Wildavsky, 1979), which I go on to address in the following paragraph.Quebecs Tobacco Act was primarily enacted as a response to the growing concerns of the unrestricted towards the hump of passive smokers or secondary smokers. As reported by Breton et al. (2008), the Tobacco Act was enacted to protect the fundamental right of non smokers to enjoy a smoke free environment than by the harms to health (Breton, et al., 2008 1682). However, the definition of the come forth leads to the discovery of more social problems. On one hand, problems such as addictiveness of take, prevalence of youth smokers (which have significantly lead to raising educational awareness of the hazards of smoking), how the majority of the population are non smokers and, finally, the financial burden to the public health care system are brought to attention. On the other hand, protesters of the measurement have contested the lethality to passive smokers, arguing that such intervention m ajor cater impede the competitiveness of the tobacco industry (through the performance of tax) and, thus, affect the economic system of the province.In liberal democracies, such as Quebec, problem denomination and definition are conceptualized as highly pluralistic, involving diverse policy stakeholders such as the public (population, retailers), individuals ( government minister of wellness), organizations (e.g. Quebec Division of Cancer society, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of health, Hospital industry), interest groups (e.g. Tobacco manufacturers, Non Smokers estimable Association, Tobacco workers union, Events Rallying for the Freedom of Sponsorship group), the media, policy communities (Regional Public Health Directorates RPHD, columnists and journalists, Quebec Coalition for Tobacco Control CQCT and too mentioned U.S administration) (Dunn, 1981 Sabatier, 1991 Kingdon, 1995 Dye, 2002 Howlett Ramesh, 2003) the actual agenda setting is characterized by different patt erns in terms of actor composition and the role of public. at that place are after-school(prenominal) initiation as well as within initiation3(May, 1991 cited in Fisher, Miller Sidney, 2007) mobilization and consolidation4(Howlett Ramesh, 2003). In this theme, the tobacco control adheres to Howlett Ramesh (2003) concept of consolidation whereby due to the impending agitation of the issue amongst the public and subsequent contraband crisis of cigarettes smuggling in the US, policy elites (prominently the bare-assed Minister of Health and the National Assembly NMA) have seized the opportunity for government legitimacy in tobacco control by, effectively, propagandizing the issue to the public via regularly intervening in the media on different aspects of tobacco control and visit MNAs cabinets (Breton et al., 2008 1685).1.1.3. Agenda settingNext, I explore the agenda setting phase which Birkland (2007) defined as the process by which problems and alternative solutions gain or lose public and elite attention (cited in Fisher, Miller Sidney, 2007 63). The prime from systemic agenda into institutional agenda5is usually dominated by power struggles between groups competing to elevate or block issues from r for apiece oneing the institutional agenda (Cobb Ross, 1997) acting singly or, more often, by building strategic coalition with others (Sabatier, 1991 Lindblom Woodhouse, 1993).From the case study, this process is signaled by the agenda of the raw Minister of Health and the tabling of the notation by the Council of Ministers at the legislative meeting. As part of his strategy in building a winning coalition, the Minister triple-crownly gathers allies and supporters for the bill by establishing the CQCT embracing Sabatiers ACF model. In addition, Breton et al. (2008) mentioned that the Minister of Health has also announced plans to allow in the bill provisions that annihilate active reckonment of tobacco companies in sponsoring arts and sports ev ents. Spearheaded by the change coordination of the CQCT, the winning coalitions which compose of Non Smokers Association and various municipalities through representatives from the RPHD, effectively debated the bill and gathered political support from the Council of Ministers at the parliamentary commission meetings, which resulted in the official adoption of the bill on February, 1998.1.1.4. policy formulation and decision-making.In the traditional phase model of the public policy process, policy formulation is part of the pre-decision phase of policy making in which the political swop described by Lindblom (1993) as competition of ideas emanates. It shams makeing and/or crafting a set of policy alternatives to address a problem, and narrowing that set of solutions in education for the final policy decision. This attack to policy formulation, embedded in a stages model of the policy process, assumes that participants in the policy process recognize and define a policy prob lem, consequently moving it onto the policy agenda.During this stage of the policy cycle, expressed problems, proposals and demands are transformed into government programs. At the same time, studies of policy formulation have been strongly dominated by the effort to emend practices within governments by introducing the techniques and tools of rational decision making. In all political systems people gather facts, interpret them and debate issues. This stage is when the Minister establishes alter command through CQCT to formulate the policy to tackle the issue of public smoking. In addition, the continuous dialogue and consultation involved in an proportionateness of the bill with nongovernmental organizations, municipalities, health institution, local and regional organizations as well as oppositions falls into this stage. Crucially, the bill was also amended to streamline the phasing out of tobacco industry sponsorship but offered no alternative solution to youth smoking and di d not contest the actual harms on health of tobacco use (Breton, et al., 2008 1686).Brewer DeLeon (1983) usefully define decision making as the selection among policy alternatives that have been generated and their likely effects on the problem estimatedit is the around overtly political stage in so far as the m whatever potential solutions are winnowed cumulation and but one or a select few picked and readied for use. (Howlett Ramesh, 2003162). The models on decision making are classified as rationalism which asserts utility maximization to complex policy problems in which policy relevant information was gathered and then pore in a scientific fashion on the assessment of policy options (Howlett Ramesh, 2003166) and incrementalism which describes policy making as a political activity of maintaining the status quo through gradual and continuation of past policies.1.1.5. Implementation.Dye (2002) defined implementation as the implementation of policies through organized bureaucr acies, public expenditures, and the activities of executive agencies (Dye, 2002 15). Intra- and inter- organizational coordinating problem and interaction of field of agencies with the target group ranked as the most prominent variables accounting for implementation failures (MacRae Wilde, 1985 Howlett Ramesh, 2003). Another bill focuses on the policy itself, acknowledging that unsuccessful policy implementation can be, though by no means the only, result of bad implementation, but also bad policy design, based on wrong assumptions about the cause-effect relationship (Hogwood Gunn, 1984 Fisher et al., 2007 52).The study of implementation is dominated by the concept of top-down centralized implementation and bottom-up implementation. The top-down school or the tumid dimension represented, for instance, by scholars like Van Meter Van trumpet (1975), Hood (1976), Gunn (1978), Nakamura Smallwood (1980) and Mazmanian Sabatier (1983), conceive of implementation as the hierarchic al execution of centrally defined policy intentions (Fisher et al., 200789). Proponents of the bottom-up or horizontal approach embarrass Lipsky (1971, 1980), Ingram (1977), Elmore (1980), and Hjern Hull (1983) who have emphasized the fact that implementation consists of everyday problem strategies of street-level bureaucrats (Pressman Wildavsky, 1973 Colebatch, 2002 Fisher et al., 2007). In this case, the policy implementation correlates closely with the top-down approach because the implementation is based on the commitments and directives from the top echelon of the government i.e. Minister of Health and Ministry of Health.1.1.5. paygrade.Finally, evaluation is the post hoc abridgment of policies and programmes carried out by government agencies themselves, outside consultants, the press, and the public (Dye, 200215) through collecting, testing, and interpreting information about the implementation and effectiveness of subsisting policies and public programmes (Majone, 1989 167). The plausible normative rationale is that policy making should be appraised against intended objectives and impacts form the starting point of policy evaluation, which forms the basis for justifying government actions for continuation or termination of public programmes and enables accountability of government offices peculiarly in democratic setting (Majone, 1989). However, from the case study, it is unclear whether any form of evaluation was carried out or not.2. Advantages.Despite depicting the developments of the Tobacco Act in a series of stages, as mentioned by Hogwood Gunn (1984) in the dividing lines between the various activities are artificial and policy makers are unconvincing to perform them consciously or in the implied logical order (Hogwood Gunn, 58), Lasswell, as Hudson Lowe (2004) note, did not conceptualized these stages as real, in the sense that they encompass clear beginnings and ends. Rather, their function being merely analytic-to help us explore d ifferent dimensions of the policy process. He Lasswell is more concerned with the value systems, institutions and wider social processes that shaped policy in the real world (Hudson Lowe, 2004 5). Therefore the process model does provide valuable descriptive analysis of the policy process.As explained above, the process model helps to disaggregate an otherwise seamless web of public policy transactions, as each segment and transition are distinguished by differentiated actions and exercises. Furthermore, the accumulative analyses of the various stages, arguably, contribute to the disentangling of the intricate political and social interdependencies, manifested in the policy arena, to bring about an ordered and manageable system6(DeLeon, 1983).Furthermore, this process framework has significant strategic implications. Firstly, by analyzing the policy actors and processes in discrete stages, it assists in identifying how stakeholders may support or resist health policies (ODI, 2007) and then develop strategies in building winning coalitions as mentioned by Easton (1979) which states how the process model lend themselves to the identification and study of interactions, not only among the various stages in the process but also among various participating organizations and between organizations and the lager beer social and economic environment (cited in Hogwood Gunn, 1989 25). Although this big businessman be more applicable to the ACF, such advantage also applies to the process model especially during the agenda setting phase. As described above, in the agenda setting phase, the process model highlighted and identified various policy stakeholders and analyzed the relationship of policy advocacies which resisted (Tobacco Manufacturers and Tobacco Workers Union) against those whom supported the bill (Minister of Health and Non Smokers Association) thereby alter the assessment of the cumulative effects of various actors7, forces, and institutions that interac ts in the policy process and therefore shape its outcome(s) (Jann Wegrich 2007 cited in Fisher, Miller, Sidney, 2007 44).Secondly, it also helps in identifying and addressing various obstacles that misdirect successful implementation of policies (ODI, 2007). The process model follows the assumption of how public policy making is a goal oriented process aimed to reach a goal or realize an objective or a purpose (Anderson, 1984 cited in Colebatch, 200285), indeedforth policy makers are able to identify constraints, which in this case, a negotiation with oppositions and accumulation public support for the bill ensured the successful adoption of the bill.Finally as pointed out by Hogwood Gunn (1984), the process framework is sooner flexible in the sense that it enables us to systematize existing knowledge without precluding the integrating of future insights (about stages, influences, interactions, etc) to the framework (Hogwood Gunn, 1984 25). In other words, it improves the pro spects of expert evidence considered during policy formulation leading to evidence based policy making. The most common method in the British government in gathering technical information for systematic analysis of policies is through ravel and error achieved by carrying out a pilot test before actual implementation of policies.3. Criticisms A better understanding in policy making.On the contrary, Parkinson (2008) in his lecture, quite rightly so, argue that the process model resembles a mechanistic tool that describes checklists of parts present in the policy making arena parallel to Nakamuras (1987) notion of a textbook approach (Sabatier, 1999).Henceforth, the top down legalistic framework is an artificial portrayal of the policy process (Dunn, 1981 Sabatier, 1999) as stated by Lindblom (1993) that deliberate, orderly steps are therefore not an accurate portrayal of how the policy process actually works. Policy making is, instead, a complexly inter-active process without begin ning or end (Lindblom Woodhouse, 1993 11). In other words, these processes do not evolve in a pattern of clear cut sequences instead the stages are constantly booked and entangled in an ongoing process which is more accurately resembles a primeval soup (Kingdon, 1995 Howlett Ramesh 1995). Therefore, the process model leads to the imposition of hypothetical score of future events which may be inappropriate or misleading with actions occurring fitfully as problems become matched with policy ideas considered to be in the political interests of a working majority of the partisans with influence over the policy domain (Lindblom Woodhouse, 1993 10).3.1. rationalisation of processes.Hogwood Gunn (1984) question the coherence and rationality of the process model as a blueprint for action by giving rational score or justification of past acts, even when the acts in question do not lend themselves to such treatment (Hogwood Gunn, 1984 26). Furthermore, Lindblom (1993) also argue that the stages are not hierarchical which proceeds from agenda setting and concluding with evaluation rather they often overlap loop with each other as analysis proceeds. This is further elaborated to a lower place.Firstly, Lindblom (1993) argue that there may not even be a stage when problem definition occurs, since participants often pull up stakes widely in their ideas about the problem (Lindblom Woodhouse, 199310). He explains that this is because policy sometimes is formed from a compromise among political participants, moreover, none of whom had in sagaciousness quite the problem to which the agreed policy responds (Lindblom Woodhouse, 199310).Secondly, Lindblom Woodhouse (1993) also point out the inaccuracy to suggest that the decision-making phase exist. As suggested by Heclo (1972) a policy can consist of what is not being done (Hogwood Gunn, 1984 21) and, thus, equally measurable, are the decisions to observe issues, that would be inconvenient, firmly off the agenda for political success in winning the disputes that arise. In other words, policy may emerge without any explicit decision, by failure to act as or the power of nondecision making (Bachrach Baratz, 1962 Heclo, 1972). Bachrach Baratz (1962) which exhibits the existence of institutional bias so that key groups are excluded in what is termed as the three dimensional view of power, in which power is used to exercise to control over the agenda of politics and of the slipway in which potential issues are kept out of the political process (Lukes, 2005 25). Furthermore, stating decisions are taken exclusively in the decision-making phase is rather inaccurate, because in reality, decisions are constantly being made regardless of the stages you are in. For example, during the policy formulation, policy makers makes decisions on which alternatives to adopt for consideration and hence to implement and during the implementation stages, policy makers make decisions on the choices of policy inst ruments to be utilized (Hill, 1993 Howlett Ramesh, 2003).Thirdly, Lindblom Woodhouse (1993) also argued that implementation and evaluation cannot be separated from the other steps. As mentioned by Lindblom Woodhouse (1993) an attempt to implement one policy almost always brings virgin problems onto the agenda, meaning the implementation and the step called agenda building collapse into each other (Lindblom Woodhouse, 1993 10). An example from the case study is that during the implementation of the Quebec Tobacco Act, to include taxation on tobacco and a ban on tobacco sponsored arts and sports event, subsequently led to the discovery that such measure might impinge the competitiveness of tobacco industries and affect the economy of the province.Finally, policy evaluation often regarded as the end of the line, does not actually constitute a step in policy making unless it throws light on potential next moves in policy, in which case evaluation becomes intertwined with all other attempts to appraise and formulate options for reshaping government activity (Lindblom Woodhouse, 1993 10). Moreover, I think that the evaluation phase overlaps with the agenda setting phase and the policy formulation phase. During the agenda setting and policy formulation phase, policies are also evaluated needed to twine and influence people in adopting and supporting the bill.3.2. Multiplicity of interactions.On the other hand, Sabatier (1999) note the framework oriented scholars towards looking at just one stage at a time, thus neglecting the entirety of the process by stating that they portrayed a disjointed, episodic process rather than a more ongoing, continuous one (Sabatier, 1999 23). In addition, Sabatier Jenkins Smith (1999) set out 5 major deficiency of the heuristic approach it provides little description of how policy moves from one stage to another it cannot be tested empirically it is basically a top down which fails to take account of street-level and other acto rs and it disregards quaternary levels of governmental interactions. Finally, it does not provide an integrated view on the gathering of policy related information, apart from the evaluation phase (Parsons, 1995 Sabatier, 1999) as pointed out by (Majone, 1989) the effectiveness in solving social problems centres in manner of speaking more information and systematic analysis into the policy making process.From the case study, it is clear that the process model is hold in in its capacity to provide institutional analysis of government interactions because it is primarily conceived to provide systematic analysis of the overall policy making process, unconnected institutionalism perspective which focuses on the role and relationship of government institutions which regards public policy as an institutional getup of the mechanisms of the government where it is authoritatively determined, implemented and enforced by these institutions (Dye, 200212). Furthermore, the process model adh eres to the view that policy making is a hierarchical top down process which initiates from agenda setting and finally ends with evaluation stage and therefore only takes account of authorized decision makers. Finally it is also rather limited in empirical research on each stage and only makes an attempt to describe systematic gathering of information in the evaluation phase only. However, on the other hand, I would have to disagree with Sabatier (1999) in that the process model does not provide clear line between the stages and the progression from one phase to another. I think the primary feather distinction of the stagist model lies in the context of policy environment and policy stakeholders involved8. Henceforth taking the definitions which I presented above of each stage and the ones offered by Dye (2002 14-15), the demarcations between the stages are summarized in the table belowPhasePolicy Stakeholder (i.e. who are involved)Policy Environment (i.e. where does it take plac e)1. Problem identificationIndividuals, public and private organizations, interest groups, think tanks, mass media and policy communities.Public debates, consultation with public, and sometimes top level government officials identify it themselves.2. Agenda settingPublic officials acting as gatekeepers as well as involvement of policy entrepreneurs.Mostly done by the executive branch of the government and in government offices.3. Policy formulation in the beginning done by government officials in Executive agencies, but may also involve interest groups, congressional committees, and think tanks.Again done in Executive government offices but may also involve the Legislative branch of the government i.e. Parliament or Senate.4. Implementation in the first place street-level bureaucrats and occasionally involving public participation.Carried out in formal government institutions.5. EvaluationDone by government agencies but may also involve the public through medias, consultants and thi nk tank organizations. Also very heavy is the use of citizen juries to evaluate public programmes.Evaluation is carried out in government offices, but also may be carried out in NGO organizations (such as EU, UN etc) and non-governmental institutions.In addition, Breton et al., (2008) successfully utilize the ACF to explain how the interactions of multiple policy advocacies have impacted policy change, which is another major deficiency of the stagist heuristic model. As mentioned by Majone (1989), both continuity and change are inherent in the conception of policy (Majone, 1989 35) and therefore should be accounted for in the models in its capacity to comprehensively capture the policy making process.For example, the ACF manage to show how the changes in the external events directly impact the core beliefs of tobacco subsystems and hence resulted in the adoption of Tobacco Act (Refer to Fig.2 in Breton et al., 2002 1683). However unlike the ACF, process model does not provide descr iption on how policies are impacted by change. Moreover the process model assumes that every policies starts from breadstuff i.e. always starts by identification of problems. Conversely, policies may be enacted not from new problems or opportunities that emerge, rather continuation of past policies in which case, the problem identification phase may be invalid.4. ConclusionIn conclusion, the process model provides valuable insights in directing analysts attention to critical features in the policymaking process, and on elucidating the policy process paradigm. Furthermore, although the ACF model is conceived to account for the entire policy process, it is limited in its capacity to explain only the policy formation (i.e. agenda setting and decision making). In other words, both models differ in their level of analysis, which I hope have been successfully demonstrated above.On the other hand, the idea of breaking down the making of public policy into phases, may well impose stages on reality that is infinitely more complex, fluid and interactive but to adopt a cyclical metaphor, it is not necessarily an unreasonable or unrealistic way of looking at what happens when public policy is made. Nonetheless, the process model does still provide some useful insights in public policy making. In my opinion, the most important thing is not to look at one best model to explain a particular policy rather a gang of models is needed as pointed out by Dye (2002 12)These models are not competitive in the sense that any one of them could be judged best. separately one provides a separate focus on political life, and each can help us to understand different things about public policy. Although some policies appear at first glance to lend themselves to explanation by one particular model, most policies are a confederacy of rational planning, incrementalism, interest group activity, elite preferences, game playing, public choice, political processes, and institutional influences .